Not all hybrids have electric motors and batteries

Not all hybrids have electric motors and batteries When it comes to transportation, hybridization is not new. Hybrid cars and trucks that combine an electric motor with a gasoline engine date back to the turn of the 20th century. Hybrid diesel-electric locomotives have been in operation for years, and in the 1970s, small numbers of diesel-electric buses began to appear. On a smaller scale, a moped is a hybrid - it combines the power of a gasoline engine with the pedal power of the rider. So, any vehicle that combines two or more sources of power is considered a hybrid vehicle (HV). Today, when hybrid and vehicle are used together - think Toyota Prius, Ford Fusion Hybrid or Honda Civic Hybrid - that vehicle, according to the U.S. Department of Energy, is a hybrid electric vehicle (HEV). Each of these vehicles combine an internal combustion engine (ICE) and an electric motor that receives electricity from a battery pack. Today’s gasoline- and diesel electric hybrid systems are very complex, high-tech wonders in design and operation. Components include controllers, generators, converters, inverters, regenerative braking and, of course, a battery pack - either nickel-metal hydride or lithium ion. HEVs offer benefits that their conventional gasoline or diesel counterparts do not have - increased fuel economy and fewer harmful emissions coming out the tailpipe. But to achieve the same results not all hybrid vehicles require electric motors and batteries. Here’s a look at three alternative hybrid systems. One is now employed in big trucks and could find its way into cars, one is likely to appear in a 2016 BMW and the third could be on the road in three years. Hydraulic - Not Just For The Big Dogs Last August I featured an article about a hydraulic hybrid system that has made its way into big diesel refuse trucks, the ones that come around once a week and pick up our trash. On a good day, a garbage hauler will eke out 4 to 5 mpg. Then there are all those icky, nasty pollutants pouring out of the exhaust stacks. But thanks to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), yes, those same government folks who monitor environmental laws and fuel mileage testing, a hydraulic hybrid system they pioneered increases fuel economy in the big rigs by as much as 33 percent and reduces carbon dioxide (CO2) by 40 percent. The principal of the hydraulic system is similar to a HEV. It recovers a portion of the energy normally lost as heat by the vehicle’s brakes. But instead of a battery pack, a hydraulic system uses pistons to capture the wasted energy by compressing nitrogen gas stored in a tank, called an accumulator. When the driver lets off the accelerator pedal, the wheels drive a hydraulic pump that pumps hydraulic fluid to compress the nitrogen gas and slows the truck down. When the driver accelerates, the nitrogen is allowed to expand and pushes a piston in a cylinder filled with hydraulic fluid. This action assists the diesel engine in turning the rear wheels. The hydraulic system performs remarkably well on the big dog trucks, but what about light duty trucks or passenger cars? The Center For Compact and Efficient Fluid Power (CCEFP), a National Science Foundation Engineering Research Center in Minneapolis, Minnesota is working on that. The center’s â€Å"Generation 2† vehicle - a Ford F-150 pickup - utilizes a custom-built continuously variable power split hydraulic transmission. It is complemented with hydraulic accumulators to enable hybrid operation. To be competitive, the system must demonstrate advantages over BEVs. Design specifications for the vehicle include: vibration and harshness comparable to a passenger vehicle; a 0 to 60 mph time of 8 seconds; climb a grade of 8 percent; emissions that meet California standards; and the big one, fuel economy of 70 mpg under the federal drive cycles. Steaming Along Twin brothers Francis and Freelan Stanley, inventors of the Stanley Steamer, would likely approve of BMW’s innovative use of the same principal that worked to power their steam engine cars more than 100 years ago to improve the efficiency in modern vehicles. Called Turbosteamer, this system uses wasted heat energy from an engine’s wasted exhaust gases to contribute power to the automobile. This steam assist system starts with a heat exchanger located between the engine and the catalyst that turns water into steam. The pressurized steam is then carried to what is essentially a small steam engine. A second, smaller steam engine produces a little more mechanical energy. I began following this technology in 2005 when BMW said the two steam engines combined generated 14 horsepower and 15 pounds-feet of torque on a 1.8-liter four-cylinder engine. Additionally, fuel economy improved by 15 percent in overall driving. The automaker also said it intended to make the Turbosteamer ready for volume production in a number of its vehicles within a decade. Well, it’s 10 years later, will it see production? Since then, researchers and engineers focused on reducing the size of the components and making the system simpler to improve dynamics. They came up with an innovative expansion turbine based on the principle of the impulse turbine. The system is now smaller, costs less and the developers say fuel consumption is reduced by up to 10 percent during highway driving. While the Turbosteamer can’t compare its greenness to the BMW i3 all-electric car, a 10 percent improvement in fuel economy for an â€Å"Ultimate Driving Machine† is nothing to sneeze at. It’s possible a Turbosteamer equipped BMW vehicle will be introduced next year. Not Just A Bunch Of Hot Air The idea that compressed air could power a viable zero emissions car has been pursued for years by many respected engineers. In 2000, there was much ado about a new compressed air, zero pollution vehicle from French inventor and Formula One engine builder, Guy Nà ¨gre. His company, Motor Development International (MDI), rolled out an urban-sized car, taxi, pickup and van that were powered by an air engine. Instead of those tiny, tiny explosions of gasoline and oxygen pushing the pistons up and down, like in a normal internal combustion engine, the all-aluminum four-cylinder air engine used compressed air for the job. A hybrid version, using a small gasoline engine to power an onboard compressor for a constant supply of compressed air, was claimed to be able to travel from Los Angeles to New York on just one tank of gas. In 2007 MDI signed an agreement with Tata Motors, India’s largest automobile manufacturer to produce air cars in 2008, followed by the hybrid version in 2009. No cars were produced. That’s perhaps one of the reasons compressed air-powered cars have been the butt of jokes among the green car community. Today, the number of jokes has diminished. That’s the result of Peugeot’s introduction of the 208 HYbrid Air 2L Prototype at the 2014 Paris Auto in October. (Full Review). It employs a compressed air tank that turns a hydraulic motor for additional power or zero emissions city driving rather than a battery for the same functions. Like a BEV, during normal driving the car is powered by the gasoline engine. Compressed air is called upon for additional power when passing or traversing a hill. In this situation, power from both the engine and hydraulic motor are directed to the front wheels via an epicyclic transmission, similar to the planetary gear set transmission used by the Toyota Prius. In city driving, where less power is needed and emissions-free driving is the priority, rather than power provided by a battery, the compressed air alone motivates the car. The compressed air tank is recharged when braking or by using part of the energy developed by the three-cylinder gasoline engine to compress the air. During the Pairs Show, Peugeot said if another large auto manufacturer would buy into the technology to enable production in enough numbers to assure manufacturing affordability, the HYbrid Air could be on the market in three or so years. Two reports from Europe are suggesting, without naming the car company, that Peugeot has found an interested partner. Last Word It’s not certain that any of these three alternative hybrid systems will be available in production vehicles, and if they are, what kind of an impact they will have in the marketplace. What is clear is, electricity in the drivetrain isn’t the only way to hybridize a vehicle.

Organisations Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Organisations Law - Essay Example The legal aspects of managing a farm touch on areas, namely: biodiversity, chemical, management, occupational health and safety, livestock management, soil management, waste management, water management, and animal management. In most parts of the world, the commercialization of animal products such as milk remain increasingly subjected to food safety regulations that demand approval for facilities for processing such as pasteurization plants. As consumers increasingly focused on quality and safety attributes, the regulatory frameworks have become widespread, stringent and employed more frequently and rigorously. As such, is critical that the client is aware of the present food safety legislation that affects the proposed activities (Fortin, 2009). Daily processing business translates to an enterprise or activity in which dairy products entail milk, liquid milk products; cream and thickened cream; butter, butter concentrate, buttermilk; ice-cream and ice-cream mix; cultured milk and yoghurt; casein, and cheese; whey, whey cream, and concentrated whey cream. Bella Ridge Farm will manufacture homemade cheeses, yoghurt, and cream. The distinctiveness of goat milk, yoghurt, and cheeses has contributed significantly in driving the demand for goat milk. Bella Ridge Goat Farm will be located in New South Wales region of Australia. The demand for goat’s milk products has risen, mainly driven by people suffering from allergies and lactose intolerance. The goat industry is a niche market and the planned herd of 300 goats in the farm’s 75 acres. The aim of the business is to build the flock to 700 goats. The property on which Bella Ridge Farm sits was previously a certified organic goat dairy featuring a large cheese making facility on farm. The goat dairy and cheese factory are purpose-built and less than 5 years old. Other key facilities include plant and

The Development of the Entire Individual and the Establishment of Essay

The Development of the Entire Individual and the Establishment of Children - Essay Example Child soldiers often experience and are exposed to unthinkable brutality. Publicised experiences of children in war involve witnessing, or even, participating in brutal killings, maiming, and torturing; being coerced to take part in sexual acts; being severely mutilated or beaten; having to raid and raze down houses; and losing loved ones (Honwana, 2011). The personal experiences of child soldiers are determined by the nature of their participation in armed conflict. Most children are coerced to become soldiers, whilst others join with different objectives. For instance, child soldiers from Sierra Leone have admitted that they enjoy the stimulation of combat and experiencing the unique camaraderie and unity that emerge within the group. Others, who had even become leaders at a very young age, admitted that they get pleasure from leading, using skills in war, and being admired and revered by their comrades (Honwana, 2011). In Sierra Leone, countless youngsters sought membership in RUF because it offered education, instruction, and guidance that the government had failed to provide (Wessells, 2006). Current studies show that the roles of child soldiers differ in relation to circumstances and gender. In Sierra Leone, girls are usually recruited or forced to become the sex slaves of rebel forces. Failure or refusal to satisfy the needs for sex can result in inhumane punishment, and, at times, death. But in certain instances, some women have been given leadership positions (Gates & Reich, 2010).

Social psychology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Social psychology - Essay Example Instead it should be practiced by everyone who wants to have a quiet lifestyle and a simple way of socializing. In this aspect, same poles attract.. Having a positive outlook in life attracts positive people, things and even fortune. On the other hand, a negative outlook would bring out negative vibes and outcome in one’s daily life. This is where Psychology defies Physics’ law of attraction (Hackney, 2008) There are people who are judgmental toward those people who have done them wrong. Life experience has proven it over and over again. Even at school or at the workplace, when a person dislike another his tendency is to look for others who also dislike the person he dislike. It works that way or that person will look for the tiniest mistake that the person he despise has done and make it the talk of the town so that other people will also despise the person (Aronson and Cope, 1968). A person’s behavior in the society might be the effect of what is being practiced in their household. If a household tends to have a negative outlook towards the society, then the society will tend to mirror that behavior. A person’s outlook towards the society which he or she is a part of is not like physics where same poles attract. One’s outlook should also be put on the positive way where a person treats his fellowmen the way he would want to be treated (Flew, 1979). Society is a big part of a person’s decision-making process. A person’s social status often plays a big part when someone needs to make a decision that may affect his stature. When that person is involved in a situation where he has been abused, often his peers would be the ones mostly affected by the circumstances. When people feel sympathy towards a person, even if they are not in any way related, they tend to have emotional attachment to that person’s â€Å"enemy.† This situation often happens when a person is loved or respected by his fellows. Such events are not

Copyright and Freedom of Expression Debate

Copyright and Freedom of Expression Debate Sean Elsworthy Copyright has been put in place to provide a fair opportunity for artists to freely express their creations whilst having their works compensated for and protected. While copyright does provide an incentive for free expression it is also a hindrance as it supresses potential artists from expressing their point of view and challenging already established works making it less an â€Å"engine for free expression† and rather an obstruction to this expression (Netanel, 2006). This quelling of expression can be seen through large companies’ control over copyright in which it allows them to hold a monopolistic grasp of the works created by popular artists, potentially preventing newer rising artists from gaining a chance at larger recognition. Creative commons on the other hand was a reaction to the contemporary state of copyright and was established in order to recognize certain rights and grant freedoms by allowing the creator to decide on the way in which their work is prot ected in order to combat the current atmosphere of copyright and provide a more appealing alternative, but the problems Creative Commons faces with their non-commercial licence will also be explored. Copyright could potentially be damaged further by recent trade agreements such as the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement (ACTA) and the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) which threaten to criminalize the use of various works while giving large companies a larger monopoly than they already have. This essay will explore the manner in which copyright provides an incentive for expression, but also the way in which it acts as a barrier to the freedom of expression. The current sphere of copyright allows large companies to hold a tight grip on the copyright over artists that they support by creating a means of curtailing a smaller artist’s creation in the form of desist letters to anyone who attempts to use part of the artist’s work. This can cause many new artists to give up on their aspirations (Heins, 2005). Large companies that desire to keep a monopolistic hold upon their works will often claim all possible copyright on works they own, sending out warning statements threatening fines or other punishments due to use of said work. Such statements can be found on various works that have already been in the public domain, for example, Shakespeare’s plays (Fishman, 2014). Not only on works in the public domain are potentially affected, but any works that an aspiring artist may be working from cannot be used due to the fear of prosecution from the copyright holders. Take for example, the Verve’s song â€Å"Bittersweet Symphony† released in 1997 that gained worldwide popularity. The well-known string section at the beginning of the song was taken from the Rolling Stone’s song â€Å"The Last Time†. The Verve was sued by the Rolling Stone’s manager Allen Klein (McLeod, 2005) under the claim that the Verve had used a larger portion of â€Å"The Last Time† than was considered reasonable. Regardless of how much work was placed into the song â€Å"Bittersweet Symphony† in order to differentiate it from past works and make it something original the Verve ended up forfeiting 100 percent of the royalties earned by the song as well as losing control over where and what the song could be used for.(McLeod, 2005). They have chosen not to perform the song since. This isn’t the only example of a copyright holder’s greed-driven attempt to milk money out of potential but negligible copyright infringements. The Beastie Boys too were put in a situation in which they needed to defend their work from copyright holders, spending over five hundred thousand dollars in the courts. They were sued by James W.Newton Jr who thought it was his right to have been paid for a six second use of the song â€Å"Choir† in which he believed used the â€Å"heart† of his song. The court ruled that the use of â€Å"Choir† was not substantial enough to be recognizable by an average audience allowing the Beastie Boys to avoid any further lawsuit (McLeod, 2005). The Beastie Boys still had to spend a large sum of money defending themselves clearly showing the way Copyright can be used for greed. While these are just a few examples of many, it’s clear to see how the current laws of copyright can perpetuate avarice on the part of copyright holders attempting to make large sums of money through lawsuits over negligible portions of material. But it doesn’t stop there. A large range of aspiring artists who are attempting to make an impression and gain a following to further fuel their artistic desires are cut short when the copyright put in place to encourage expression is in actuality cutting the expression short. Since copyright holders own full control over any works in their possession, they are as a result able to exclude any other use of the work in order to establish a â€Å"Marketable right† (Harris, 2004). As a result of this exclusive right, any individual who attempts to use anything from the work whether it be in the form of a cover, reproduction, mash-up or to simply re-perform this work often have to pay a fee (Heins, 2005). In fact, any individual who desires to use a portion of another artists work must now pay for a licence over that excerpt they are using. The court states â€Å"Get a Licence or do not sample† (McLeod, 2005). While the price will depend on the company issuing the lic ence, buying a licence is often the only choice left to an aspiring artist to use part of another’s work. The alternative being to run the risk of infringing copyright and being faced with huge fines or the possibility of needing to defend themselves in court which is often beyond their financial means as well as not being worth the time or effort for a small excerpt of a song or idea. Companies will often attempt to bring any infringements to a halt through the use of cease and desist letters often threatening punishments or fines. These can be sent to nearly anyone, even competitors of the company (Heins, 2005). Take down notices are not uncommon in the digital world. These request the removal of any material that is deemed as infringement under copyright law (Heins, 2005). Large companies use nearly any means at their disposal to prevent potential competition and continue an inflow of profit for the monopolistic empire that current copyright law has allowed them to create, further silencing the â€Å"engine of free expression† that copyright initially sought to create. There are, however, modes of copyright that still offer artists the protection and compensation as well as â€Å"Free Expression† that they need to continue creating material. This also allows other aspiring artists to use their work without being slapped with enormous fees. The means of creating this copyright sphere is through Creative Commons. Creative commons is a non-profit organization that was established in 2002. It was created not to overwrite or challenge the current copyright system, but to compliment it and provide a free culture by creating a means by which artists can copyright their works more reasonably and flexibly in comparison to what the current copyright would allow. This helps deal with the issues that have arisen with overprotection (Loren, 2006). Creative Commons has clearly made an impact on the copyright sphere with around 400 million works being created under the Creative Commons licence (Cobcroft et al., 2008). It allows artists to freely distribute their work under a Creative Commons Licence of their choice with their options being the right to copy and publish. This is done regardless of whether there is attribution required, if the work can be used commercially, whether or not the work can be modified and adapted, and if the license of the work can be changed. These various modes of licencing can then be mixed and matched depending on the intentions of the artist (Commons, 2009). In turn allowing other artists to legally modify and make use of their work under the framework of â€Å"some rights reserved† (Cobcroft et al., 2008). Creative Commons has earned an extensive amount of support as millions of documents, images, film clips and audio tracks have been used under a Creative Commons licence (Cobcroft et al., 2008). Take for example a musician that composes a song and then places this song under the â€Å"sampling licence†, allowing anyone to use portions of this song in an attempt to make something new fro m the inspiration of the original artist (Goss, 2007). Creative Commons too moves away from the extensive period of time in which material stays under the name of the artist, in that anyone creating a work under the creative commons licence must agree to having their work enter the public domain after either fourteen or twenty-eight years (Goss, 2007). As a result of this, it opens up a number of reasons to why an artist may choose to take the Creative Commons route. It furthers the use of a number of materials whether they be educational, cultural, recreational or informational expanding the concept of free expression as many works enter the public domain for fair use. It also allows various artists, writers and publishers to release their work for free in order to generate an interest in their work and create a cult following, furthering the demand for work from these artists (Goss, 2007). It is clear then, that Creative Commons allows for an alternative free expression as opposed to the issue of overprotection that the current copyright sphere allows large companies to hold. However, while Creative Commons does offer a number of advantages it is not without its downsides. While one of the founders of Creative Commons believes that the licences are â€Å"bulletproof†, the legitimacy of the licences and their enforceability is unclear (Goss, 2007). Since the license does not depend on any legal entity rather it exists for the purpose in which the material was reproduced or sampled the license specifies that it is not intended for commercial advantage making it controversial whether or not the intention or direction should be the primary focus (Hagedorn et al., 2011). Furthermore, the largest problem that is faced in terms of Creative Commons is the â€Å"non-commercial† option and the manner in which it is often inadequately understood. It is not uncommon for people to interpret what is and is not acceptable when using material licensed as non-commercial in combination with advertisement to recover from cost deficits. This makes Creative Co mmon’s â€Å"Non-commercial† licence ambiguous as many can bend it to be compatible with their definition of how the licence is used (Hagedorn et al., 2011). In practice, this means that potential interpretations can range from allowing the use of images, graphs or other forms of data in a non-profit journal being published to banning use of the work anywhere in which money might be exchanged even if the only reason is for the recovery of costs (Harris, 2004). It is then, also important to note that these views are limited to how the work is used, and the status of people who could potentially use the work is neglected entirely. So while non-commercial licences are open to both profit and non-profit organizations, non-profit organization artists or authors are going to have rely on outside factors other than their status in the industry to decide on whether or not it’s worth using any non-commercial works (Hagedorn et al., 2011). While Creative Commons does offe r a number of ways for someone to create or use something without the problematic grip of the current copyright protection laws, there are still however issues with Creative Common’s mode of expression under the ambiguous non-commercial licence. The future of copyright and its freedom of expression is a bleak one with copyright laws such as ACTA and TPP threatening to bring in global copyright standards that will increase the grip large corporations hold over copyright by allowing a small portion of the industry to control a large amount of content. ACTA is a multinational agreement to create a new global property enforcement standard in an attempt to target the counterfeiting of goods. While the United States Supreme Court describes copyright as an â€Å"engine for free expression†, ACTA would undermine this by creating a tension between protection of copyright and that of free speech (Yu, 2011). ACTA potentially harms the freedom of expression in copyright as musicians, authors, movie makers, journalists, software developers and researchers have their freedom of expression cut short, as sampling or using any material is prohibited. This means no one can build upon the idea of another as protected ideas are held by l arge industries and the use of any of this material could result in fines or criminal charges. As a result of this ACTA has been heavily criticized and seen as â€Å"hostile to the public interest†. ACTA is seen this way as their policy is set as a balance between protection and access. This lies at the heart of intellectual property and as a result the implementation of ACTA would prevent potential future creations of new work ranging from video-making to journals as simply quoting a protected sentence could be seen as infringement (Flynn, 2010). Although ACTA is not in force, TPP is a proposed regional free-trade agreement that also threatens the potential for freedom of expression. This agreement appears to increase the control over material by large corporations as they lobby for stricter copyright claiming that this will enhance freedom of expression, innovation and create jobs. This however is not the case. As a result, similar to ACTA, any artists, musicians or filmmak ers who wish to sample material will face legal threats even if the acquisition of the material is legal. This includes any creations that attempt to make material accessible to large crowds such as the disabled. TPP can potentially further damage the freedom of expression as it gives large corporations the ability to limit the public domain as it permits these corporations to cut off access to material which they potentially have no copyright over purely because it contains a copyrighted element. This is done rather than using copyright as protection against their works thus limiting the creation of potential works in the attempt to instantiate an anti-competitive effect (Flynn et al., 2012). Copyright is then less a â€Å"freedom of expression†. The effects of ACTA and TPP strengthening the monopoly of larger corporations by criminalizing and restricting creative material will threaten the future of creativity. While copyright may be seen as an â€Å"engine of free expression† in which artists can express their creations freely whilst still being compensated for the work that they create, it is clear that it can also be seen as a suppression to this freedom. Large companies and corporations often have a strong grasp on the materials that they have copyright over and as a result it’s often difficult to get hold of samples or works that they need to further their creativity. Or in some cases this leads to ceasing this expression altogether. Creative Commons offers an excellent alternative to free expression, allowing artists to choose from a number of different licences giving them the means to protect their work that best suits their needs while still allowing their work to be distributed. It is not however, without its problems. This is as the non-commercial licence is ambiguous and is often up for debate in what it means in a number of different situations. There is a potenti al threat to copyright’s freedom of expression that are the trade agreements ACTA and TPP which give companies a broad and strong protection over material they own and potentially material that simply has copyright elements. Thus denying the use of these works in any manner preventing many forms of creation. It is clear then while copyright does create an incentive for expression, in the current sphere of copyright it does not extend itself to an â€Å"engine for free expression† with the problems it currently faces. REFRENCE LIST COBCROFT, R. S., COATES, J. M. BLEDSOE, E. 2008. Building an Australasian Commons: Creative Commons case studies vol. 1, Queensland University of Technology. COMMONS, C. 2009. About the licenses. Retrieved October, 11. FISHMAN, S. 2014. The public domain: How to find use copyright-free writings, music, art more, Nolo. FLYNN, S. 2010. ACTAs Constitutional Problem: The Treaty Is Not a Treaty. Am. U. Intl L. Rev., 26, 903. FLYNN, S. M., BAKER, B., KAMINSKI, M. KOO, J. 2012. US Proposal for an Intellectual Property Chapter in the Trans-Pacific Partnership Agreement, The. GOSS, A. K. 2007. Codifying a Commons: Copyright, Copyleft, and the Creative Commons Project. Chi.-Kent L. Rev., 82, 963. HAGEDORN, G., MIETCHEN, D., MORRIS, R. A., AGOSTI, D., PENEV, L., BERENDSOHN, W. G. HOBERN, D. 2011. Creative Commons licenses and the non-commercial condition: Implications for the re-use of biodiversity information. ZooKeys, 127. HARRIS, J. 2004. Beyond Fair Use: Expanding Copyright Misuse to Protect Digital Free Speech. Tex. Intell. Prop. LJ, 13, 83. HEINS, M. 2005. Will fair use survive? Free expression in the age of copyright control, Marjorie Heins. LOREN, L. P. 2006. Building a reliable semicommons of creative works: Enforcement of creative commons licenses and limited abandonment of copyright. Geo. Mason L. Rev., 14, 271. MCLEOD, K. 2005. Freedom of expression: Overzealous copyright bozos and other enemies of creativity. NETANEL, N. 2006. Copyrights Paradox: Property in Expression/Freedom of Expression. Journal of Scholarly Perspectives, 2. YU, P. K. 2011. Six secret (and now open) fears of ACTA. SMU Law Review, 64, 975-1094

BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION :: essays research papers

Behavior modification is based on the principles of operant conditioning, which were developed by American behaviorist B.F. Skinner. In his research, he put a rat in a cage later known as the Skinner Box, in which the rat could receive a food pellet by pressing on a bar. The food reward acted as a reinforcement by strengthening the rat's bar-pressing behavior. Skinner studied how the rat's behavior changed in response to differing patterns of reinforcement. By studying the way the rats operated on their environment, Skinner formulated the concept of operant conditioning, through which behavior could be shaped by reinforcement or lack of it. Skinner considered his discovery applicable to a wide range of both human and animal behaviors(â€Å"Behavior,† 2001). Today, behavior modification is used to treat a variety of problems in both adults and children. Behavior modification has been successfully used to treat obsessive-compulsive disorder, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, phobias, bedwetting, anxiety disorder, and separation anxiety disorder. Behavior modification is not used to treat disorders and problems, it is also used to increase a desired behavior. An example of a behavior many try to increase is their athletic abilities including speed, strength, and endurance (Fedor, 1990). Athletes use a variety of behavior modification techniques to accomplish their overall goal. The most widely used is positive reinforcement, which encourages certain behaviors through a system of rewards. Following rewarding desirable behavior, behavior modification can also discourage unwanted behavior, through either negative reinforcement, or punishment. This could be removal of a privilege or an undesired event. Behavior modification in athletics requires the development of goals. It needs one overall goal as well as small step goals. Goal setting is one of the strongest motivational tools. Studies have shown that goals should be broken down into short-term or intermediate goals to help attain the ultimate goals; goals must be accepted by the individual; challenging goals are better than easy ones; tracking progress is useful to remain committed to goals; and a plan of action facilitates goal attainment (Annesi, 2004). With the addition of a written contract binding the athlete to their goals it acts as another enforcer to accomplish their desired behavior. Behavior modification, or behavioral therapy, trains individuals to replace undesirable behaviors with healthier behavioral patterns.

Look at the beginning of act two Essay

And doesn’t eat herself since she has presumably eaten with the children. In those times, (1692) wives were expected to stay at home, clean the house, cook the food, take care of the children, and obey their husbands. They were also expected to be good Christians, be calm, quiet etc. To express these qualities above, Elizabeth should probably dress in quite plain, conservative clothes, and † walk straight, eyes slightly lowered, arms at the sides, and talk quietly. † He then compliments her about the rabbit, â€Å"It’s well seasoned†, and she receives it, ‘blushing with pleasure’. She then adds, that she â€Å"took great care. † Again, both are trying hard to be friendly to each other, to try to avoid argument. It is however; ironic that Proctor complimented her on the seasoning on the rabbit, since he seasoned it himself. After that, he talks about the farm and says with a grin â€Å"I mean to please you Elizabeth. † And she answers, â€Å"I know it John. † However, before she answers, she pauses, and â€Å"finds it hard to say. † This means that she might not think he honestly wants to please her, or make their marriage work. Since this is quite a dramatic moment, I think the lighting should focus on her at this point, and if present the orchestra should be silent to emphasize her hesitation. The author then repeats Elizabeth’s lack of love and coldness when John proctor gets up and kisses her, and then returns disappointed. This is so that if the audience misses the pause, thus showing her disbelief and distrust in him, they will see her total lack in passion and love when John is rejected from Elizabeth,. He then asks her for some cider, as gently as he can, since he feels she is hurt, and doesn’t want to make her feel any worse. He then says, â€Å"Its winter in here yet,† which might be a hint for her to warm her heart and become more loving. Yet since her badly wants to be nice, he asks her on type of date, to walk across the farm. They both get up, and he walks to the door, and he seems quite happy. She however, isn’t. He seems to notice this, and asks her if she is sad again. As they say these last lines, I think that ‘the sense of their separation’ should be emphasised be lighting. Ie, the lights, which have been directed at both of them together so far, should split, a light on each character. This would subtly hint to the audience that although they are desperately striving to make their marriage work, it can’t yet because there is a distance between them, and they’re not on the same wavelength. The audience can also see this when John seems deep in his thoughts about spring, flowers, and Massachusetts, while Elizabeth seems to worry about something. She answers to his question, â€Å"Are you sad again† and immediately justifies her answer when she says that she thought he had gone to Salem since he was back so late. This could show the audience that she thought he had gone to see Abigail, because they know Abigail lives in Salem from what they saw in act one. He knows that she thought of him going to see Abigail, so he says he has no business in Salem. This shows the audience, that although he is eager to let go of the past, (which is also shown in act one â€Å"I will cut my hand off before I ever reach for you (Abigail) again. â€Å") Elizabeth has not yet forgiven him, which he accuses her of later. â€Å"You forgive nothing’ and forget nothin’! † She then admits to having let Mary go to Salem and this makes him quite angry. However, when she carries on he starts shouting at her ‘holding back a full condemnation of her’ and says that she should control her servants better. Perhaps he also thinks that she should have controlled Abigail, so he wouldn’t have had an affair with her. Basically, in this part of Act Two, the author shows that the strain in their relationship was caused by his affair with Abigail, which has resulted with her distrust. Miller also shows that Proctor quickly raises his temper, which could also strain a relationship. Proctor only seems to have raised his temper when Abigail and his affair with her are mentioned. This could be because he feels guilty. Knowing what parts of the act give hints to their difficult relationship helps tremendously when the play is performed, since the director knows what parts of the act he must emphasise. He can do that by using different lighting, sound effects, dramatic music from an orchestra, acting, and pauses. By Karina Wortelboer Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE Arthur Miller section.